SYLVIE N. FONKWO*1, PRIDE A. EBILE2 and KELLIE DANIELS3
1Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, The University of Bamenda, P.O. Box 39, Bambili, Bamenda, Cameroon
2Farm Economics and Ecosystem Services, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF) e.V., Müncheberg, Germany
3Media Culture and Heritage, School of Arts and Culture, Newcastle University, Blaydon, Tyne and Wear, UK
Correspondence: snguedem@gmail.com, (+237) 677693571
Received: 15 Feb 2025, Reviewed: 22 Mar 2025, Revised: 19 Apr 2025, Accepted: 25 Apr 2025, Published: 05 June 2025
https://doi.org/10.63342/cjbbs2025.33.005.eng
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the associations and threats facing the Critically Endangered Preuss’s red colobus (Procolobus preussi) in Korup National Park, Cameroon. The scan sampling method was used with over 462 observation hours; we documented 76 Preuss’s red colobus groups, resulting in 2,303 individual sightings. Our findings reveal that Preuss’s red colobus associates with six primates: Cercopithecus pogonias, Cercopithecus nictitans, Cercopithecus mona, Cercopithecus erythrotis, Cercocebus torquatus, and Mandrillus leucophaeus. The most frequent associations were observed with Cercopithecus nictitans and Cercopithecus pogonias, while associations with Cercopithecus torquatus were least common. Behavioral observations showed that resting (29.74%), feeding (23.66%), and moving (23.14%) were the predominant activities of Preuss’s red colobus during these associations. Questionnaires administered to 187 hunters from villages within and outside Korup National Park identified overhunting as the primary threat to Preuss’s red colobus, followed by habitat destruction. Hunters aged 21-40 years were found to be the most active, engaging in both hunting and farming year-round. The study found no evidence of chimpanzee predation on Preuss’s red colobus in Korup National Park. This research contributes valuable data on primate associations in the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko ecoregion and highlights the feasibility of studying this elusive species. The findings underscore the urgent need for enhanced conservation measures in Korup National Park, including strengthened anti-poaching efforts, improved alternative livelihood options for local communities, and targeted education programs. This study serves as a foundation for further research and conservation efforts, and future research aimed at preserving Preuss’s Red Colobus and the maintenance of primates’ communities in tropical forest ecosystems.
Keywords: Procolobus preussi, anthropogenic activities, Korup National Park, hunting, Habitat destruction, Activity pattern.
RÉSUMÉ
Cette étude examine les associations et les menaces pesant sur le colobe roux de Preuss (Procolobus preussi), une espèce en danger critique d’extinction, dans le parc national de Korup, au Cameroun. La méthode d’échantillonnage par balayage a été utilisée sur plus de 462 heures d’observation, permettant de documenter 76 groupes de colobes roux de Preuss, totalisant 2 303 observations individuelles. Nos résultats révèlent que cette espèce s’associe à six autres espèces de primates: Cercopithecus pogonias, Cercopithecus nictitans, Cercopithecus mona, Cercopithecus erythrotis, Cercocebus torquatus et Mandrillus leucophaeus. Les associations les plus fréquentes ont été observées avec Cercopithecus nictitans et Cercopithecus pogonias, tandis que les associations avec Cercopithecus torquatus étaient les moins courantes. Les observations comportementales ont montré que le repos (29,74 %), l’alimentation (23,66 %) et les déplacements (23,14 %) étaient les principales activités du colobe roux de Preuss lors de ces associations. Des questionnaires administrés à 187 chasseurs issus de villages situés à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur du parc national de Korup ont identifié la chasse excessive comme la principale menace pesant sur le colobe roux de Preuss, suivie par la destruction de son habitat. Les chasseurs âgés de 21 à 40 ans se sont révélés les plus actifs, pratiquant la chasse et l’agriculture tout au long de l’année. L’étude n’a trouvé aucune preuve de prédation par les chimpanzés sur le colobe roux de Preuss dans le parc national de Korup. Cette recherche fournit des données précieuses sur les associations entre primates dans l’écorégion Cross-Sanaga-Bioko et démontre la faisabilité d’étudier cette espèce discrète. Les résultats soulignent l’urgence de renforcer les mesures de conservation dans le parc national de Korup, notamment par le renforcement des efforts de lutte contre le braconnage, l’amélioration des moyens de subsistance alternatifs pour les communautés locales et la mise en place de programmes éducatifs ciblés. Cette étude constitue une base pour des recherches et des efforts de conservation futurs visant à préserver le colobe roux de Preuss et à maintenir les communautés de primates dans les écosystèmes forestiers tropicaux.
Mots-clés : Procolobus preussi, activités anthropiques, parc national de Korup, chasse, destruction de l’habitat, régime d’activités.
REFERENCES
Astaras, C. (2009). Ecology and status of the drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) in Korup National Park, southwest Cameroon: Implications for conservation. Optimus Mostafa.Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecological applications, 10(5), 1251-1262. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)01
Bobo¹, K. S., Ntumwel¹, C. B., Aghomo¹, F. F., & Ayemele¹, K. A. (2017). The conservation status of two threatened primates in the Korup region, Southwest Cameroon. Primate Conservation, 31, 37-48.
Chapman, C. A., & Lambert, J. E. (2000). Habitat alteration and the conservation of African primates: case study of Kibale National Park, Uganda. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 50(3), 169-185. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(200003)50:3<169::AID-AJP1>3.0.CO;2-
Chapman, C. A., & Chapman, L. J. (1996). Mixed-species primate groups in the Kibale Forest: ecological constraints on association. International Journal of Primatology, 17, 31-50. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02696157
Chapman, C. A., Saj, T. L., & Snaith, T. V. (2007). Temporal dynamics of nutrition, parasitism, and stress in colobus monkeys: implications for population regulation and conservation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology: The Official Publication of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 134(2), 240-250. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20664
Chivers, D. J. (1988). M. Cords 1987. Mixed-species association of Cercopithecus monkeys in the Kakamega Forest, Kenya. University of California Publications in Zoology, Volume 117. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles and New York. 109 pages. ISBN 0-520-09717-3. Price: US $12.00 (paperback). Journal of Tropical Ecology, 4(2), 224-224.
Cords, M. (1990). Mixed‐species association of East African guenons: General patterns or specific examples? American Journal of Primatology, 21(2), 101-114. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1350210204
Cords, M. (1990). Vigilance and mixed-species association of some East African forest monkeys. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 26, 297-300. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00178323
Ebile, P. A., Phelan, L., & Wünsche, J. N. (2022). The role of home gardens in empowering minority women and improving food and nutrition insecurity: A case of Mbororo community in Cameroon’s Northwest region. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 46(7), 1002-1024. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2022.2080313
Ebile, P. A., Ndah, H. T., & Wünsche, J. N. (2021). Agricultural risk assessment to enhance the food systems of the Mbororo minority community in the Northwest region of Cameroon. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics (JARTS), 122(2), 207-217. https://doi.org/10.17170/kobra-202110274959
Edem, A. E. (2002). The survey of Preuss’s red colobus (Procolobus badius preussi) in Ikpan forest block of the Cross River National Park, Nigeria. Unpublished report. NCF-WCS Nigeria Biodiversity Conservation Project, 8p.
Edwards, A. E. (1992). The diurnal primates of Korup National Park, Cameroon: abundance, productivity and polyspecific associations (Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida).
Fonkwo, S. N., Mbida, M., Angwafor, T. E., & Ebua, V. B. (2015). Activity budget of Preuss’s red colobus (Procolobus preussi) in Korup National Park, south-west region, Cameroon. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 9(4), 1799-1808. DOI:10.4314/ijbcs.v9i4.6
Fonkwo, S. N., Mbida, M., Angwafo, T. E., & Ebua, V. B. (2018). Hunting of preusss red colobus (Procolobus preussi) in Korup National Park, Cameroon. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 10(2), 100-105. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJBC2017.1110
Galat, G., & Galat-Luong, A. (1985). La communauté de primates diurnes de la forêt de Taï, Côte-d’Ivoire. Revue d’écologie, 40(1), 3-32.
Gautier, J. P., & Gautier-Hion, A. (1969). Les associations polyspécifiques chez les Cercopithecidae du Gabon. Revue d’Écologie, 164(2), 164-201.
Gautier-Hion, A. (1980). Seasonal variations of diet related to species and sex in a community of Cercopithecus monkeys. The Journal of Animal Ecology, 237-269.
Gautier-Hion, A., Quris, R., & Gautier, J. P. (1983). Monospecific vs polyspecific life: a comparative study of foraging and antipredatory tactics in a community of Cercopithecus monkeys. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 12, 325-335. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00302901
Thomas, D., Burnham, R. J., Chuyong, G., Kenfack, D., & Sainge, M. N. (2015). Liana abundance and diversity in Cameroon’s Korup National Park. Ecology of lianas, 11-22. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118392409.ch2
Ihobe, H. (1990). Interspecific interactions between wild pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) and red colobus (Colobus badius). Primates, 31, 109-112. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02381033
Ikemeh, R. A. (2015). Assessing the population status of the critically endangered Niger Delta Red Colobus (Piliocolobus epieni). Primate Conservation, 2015(29), 87-96. https://doi.org/10.1896/052.029.0104
Kenfack, D., Thomas, D. W., Chuyong, G., & Condit, R. (2007). Rarity and abundance in a diverse African forest. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16, 2045-2074. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-006-9065-2
Korstjens, A. H., Lehmann, J., & Dunbar, R. I. M. (2010). Resting time as an ecological constraint on primate biogeography. Animal Behaviour, 79(2), 361-374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.11.012
Linder, J. M. (2008). The Impact of Hunting on Primates in Korup National Park, Cameroon: Implications for Primate Conservation. PhD Thesis, City University of New York, New York 145-162.
Mammides, C., Cords, M., & Peters, M. K. (2009). Effects of habitat disturbance and food supply on population densities of three primate species in the Kakamega Forest, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 47(1), 87-96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00921.x
McGraw, S. (1994). Census, habitat preference, and polyspecific associations of six monkeys in the Lomako Forest, Zaire. American Journal of Primatology, 34(4), 295-307. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1350340402
McGraw, W. S., & Bshary, R. (2002). Association of terrestrial mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) with arboreal monkeys: experimental evidence for the effects of reduced ground predator pressure on habitat use. International journal of primatology, 23, 311-325. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013883528244
McGraw, W. S. (2007). Vulnerability and conservation of the Taï monkey fauna. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology, 51, 290.
Morgan, B. J., Suh, J. N., & Abwe, E. E. (2013). Attempted predation by Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ellioti) on Preuss’s red colobus (Procolobus preussi) in the Ebo forest, Cameroon. Folia primatologica, 83(3-6), 329-331. https://doi.org/10.1159/000339813
Noë, R., & Bshary, R. (1997). The formation of red colobus–Diana monkey associations under predation pressure from chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 264(1379), 253-259. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1997.0036
Ntumwel, B.C. (2012). Conservation status of Preuss’s red colobus (Procolobus preussi) and red-capped Mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus) in the Korup region, South-West Cameroon. Master thesis, University of Dschang, Cameroon. 63p.
Oates, J. F. (2011). Primates of West Africa: a field guide and natural history. 556p.
Oates, J. F., & Whitesides, G. H. (1990). Association between olive colobus (Procolobus verus), Diana guenons (Cercopithecus diana), and other forest monkeys in Sierra Leone. American Journal of Primatology, 21(2), 129-146. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1350210206
Oates, J. F., Bergl, R. A., & Linder, J. M. (2004). Africa’s Gulf of Guinea forests: Biodiversity patterns and conservation priorities. Advances in Applied Biodiversity Science, Vol. 6, Conservation International, Washington, DC.
Okon, D., & Ekobo, A. (2007). Monitoring large mammals and human activities in Korup National Park. Report to WWF Coastal Forests Program.
Pollard, E. H. (1997). Effect of logging operations and economic decline on the bushmeat trade in southwest Cameroon. Doctoral dissertation, MSc thesis, University College London, London, UK.
Ruiz-Lopez, M. J., Barelli, C., Rovero, F., Hodges, K., Roos, C., Peterman, W. E., & Ting, N. (2016). A novel landscape genetic approach demonstrates the effects of human disturbance on the Udzungwa red colobus monkey (Procolobus gordonorum). Heredity, 116(2), 167-176. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2015.82
Siex, K. S., & Struhsaker, T. T. (1999). Colobus monkeys and coconuts: a study of perceived human–wildlife conflicts. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36(6), 1009-1020. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2664.1999.00455.x
Struhsaker, T. T. (1978). Food habits of five monkey species in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. In: Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol. 1, CHIVERS, D.J; HERBERT, J. (eds), Academic Press, New York, 225-248.
Struhsaker, T. T. (1981). Polyspecific association among tropical rainforest primates. Z. Tierpsychol 57, 268-304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1981.tb01928.x
Struhsaker, T. T. (2005). Conservation of red colobus and their habitat. International Journal of Primatology 26 (3), 525-538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-005-4364-0
Struhsaker, T. T. (2010). Variation in Demography, Behaviour, and Ecology of Endangered Species. Oxford University Press, pp. 253-255.
Teelen, S. (2007). Influence of chimpanzee predation on associations between red colobus and red-tailed monkeys at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology, 28, 593-606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-007-9140-x
Terborgh, J. (1990). Mixed flocks and polyspecific associations: costs and benefits of mixed groups to birds and monkeys. American Journal of Primatology, 21(2), 87-100. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1350210203
Waser, P. M. (1980). Polyspecific associations of Cercocebus albigena: geographic variation and ecological correlates. Folia Primatologica, 33(1-2), 57-76.
Waser, P. M. (1982). Primate polyspecific associations: do they occur by chance? Animal Behaviour, 30(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(82)80230-3
Watts, D. P., & Amsler, S. J. (2013). Chimpanzee‐red colobus encounter rates show a red colobus population decline associated with predation by chimpanzees at Ngogo. American Journal of Primatology, 75(9), 927-937. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22157
Whitesides, G. H. (1989). Interspecific associations of Diana monkeys, Cercopithecus diana, in Sierra Leone, West Africa: biological significance or chance? Animal behaviour, 37, 760-776. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(89)90062-6
White, L.J.T. (1992). The effect of mechanized selective logging on the flora and mammalian fauna of the Lopé Reserve, Gabon. In: Plumptre A.J, Reynolds V, editors. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Edinburgh 205.
Zuberbühler, K. (2001). Predator-specific alarm calls in Campbell’s monkeys, Cercopithecus campbelli. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 50, 414-422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002650100383